Sin Ch'aeho
Sin Ch'aeho, or Shin Chae-ho or Sin Chaeho (Korean: 신채호; December 8, 1880 – February 21, 1936), was a Korean independence activist, historian, anarchist, nationalist, and a founder of Korean nationalist historiography (민족 사학, minjok sahak; sometimes shortened to minjok). He is held in high esteem in both North and South Korea. Two of his works, A New Reading of History (Doksa Sillon), written in 1908, and The Early History of Joseon (Joseon Sanggosa), published in 1931, are considered key works of nationalist historiography in modern Korea. He argued that modern Koreans and the people of Manchuria were of a single race which has an ancestral claim to both Korea and Manchuria, Shin also studied Korean mythology. During his exile in China, Shin joined the Eastern Anarchist Association and wrote anti-imperialist and pro-independence articles in various outlets; his anarchist activities lead to his arrest and subsequent death in prison, February 21, 1936.
Sin Ch'aeho | |
|---|---|
| 신채호 | |
 | |
| Born | December 8, 1880 Chungcheong, Sannaeri, Joseon |
| Died | February 21, 1936 (aged 55) |
| Awards | Presidential Order of Merit for National Foundation (1962) (PH)[1] |
| Education | |
| Alma mater |
|
| Philosophical work | |
| Era | 19th- / 20th-century philosophy |
| Region | Eastern philosophy |
Main interests | |
Notable ideas | |
| Korean name | |
| Hangul | 신채호 |
| Hanja | 申采浩 |
| RR | Sin Chaeho |
| MR | Sin Ch'aeho |
| Art name | |
| Hangul | 단재 |
| Hanja | 丹齋 |
| RR | Danjae |
| MR | Tanjae |
Sin Ch'aeho, or Shin Chae-ho or Sin Chaeho (Korean: 신채호; December 8, 1880 – February 21, 1936), was a Korean independence activist, historian, anarchist, nationalist, and a founder of Korean nationalist historiography (민족 사학, minjok sahak; sometimes shortened to minjok).[2]: 7 [3]: 27 [4]: 52 He is held in high esteem in both North[5]: 112–3 and South Korea.[6]: 26–7
Two of his works, A New Reading of History (Doksa Sillon), written in 1908, and The Early History of Joseon (Joseon Sanggosa), published in 1931, are considered key works of nationalist historiography in modern Korea.[7]: 445 He argued that modern Koreans and the people of Manchuria were of a single race which has an ancestral claim to both Korea and Manchuria,[6]: 26 [8]: 3 Shin also studied Korean mythology.[4]: 53 During his exile in China, Shin joined the Eastern Anarchist Association and wrote anti-imperialist and pro-independence articles in various outlets; his anarchist activities lead to his arrest and subsequent death in prison, February 21, 1936.[7]: 447 [9]: 128
Biography
[edit]Early years
[edit]Sin was born on December 8, 1880. His grandfather was an official in the royal advisory department. His pen name was "Dansaeng", which he later changed to "Danjae". Sin was taught various Neo-Confucian books and concepts by his grandfather, and later enrolled in the Confucian academy Sungkyunkwan,[7]: 441–2 receiving a doctoral degree in 1905.[10] Sin, to a limited capacity, read Italian literature and history and published some Italian-related works; There is some speculation that Dante might be an influence on Sin Ch'aeho's work, in particular Dream Sky (1916).[11]: 313
Sin went on to work for the editorial boards for two newspapers, the Hwangsŏng Sinmun and the Taehan Maeil Sinbo, and became the leader of the underground "patriotic enlightenment" group, the Sinminhoe.[7]: 443 His group would later migrate to Manchuria in 1910[8]: 3 and attract such radicals as Yi Tong-hwi, a Korean Bolshevik who participated in "The Conspiracy case of 1911,"[12]: 6–7 which was an effort to assassinate Japanese Governor-General Terauchi, leading to the arrests of several Sinminhoe members and eventually the dissolution of the Sinminhoe.[13]: 46
Abroad
[edit]Sin went into voluntary exile in August 1910 when Japan declared its annexation of Korea.[14][7]: 444–5 He traveled to the Shinhanchon Korean enclave in Vladivostok, where he became the head writer for the newspapers Haejo Sinmun and Taeyangbo.[15][16][17] He moved to China in 1913,[14] and traveled the country.[7]: 444–5 Sin never returned to Korea,[6]: 27 and since he refused to file for citizenship with the Empire of Japan he became stateless.[1] The March First Independence Movement, in 1919 spurred him to join the Korean Provisional Government in Shanghai.[7]: 445 Sin quickly became frustrated with the Provisional Government,[9]: 123–4 culminating in a clash with interim leader Syngman Rhee (I Seung-man) and Sin leaving to embrace anarchism[18]: 34 and draft the "Declaration of Korean Revolution" for the Righteous Brotherhood (Uiyeoldan) in 1923.[7]: 445 Sin went on to join the Eastern Anarchist Association (동방 무정부주의 연맹; 東方無政府主義聯盟) in 1926.[7]: 446
Arrest and death
[edit]Sin was arrested by the Japanese Military Police in Taiwan in May 1928 for the attempted smuggling of 12,000 yuan in forged banknotes out of Taiwan under the pseudonym "Yu Byeong-taek" (유병택; 柳烟澤) in an effort to help fund the Eastern Anarchist Association's general activities and bomb factory.[7]: 446 He was sentenced to a 10-year prison term by the Dalian District Court to be served in Lüshun Prison.[19] Sin died while in solitary confinement at Lüshun Prison of a brain hemorrhage on 21 February 1936.[19][20]: 156 [7]: 447 The Republic of Korea posthumously awarded Sin with the "Presidential Order of Merit for National Foundation" in 1962 and citizenship on April 13, 2013.[1]
Thought
[edit]The Minjok and Korean ethnic nationalism
[edit]Sin Ch'aeho wrote extensively on a theory of ethnic history which sought to challenge traditional border concepts in Korea and encourage Korean nationalism. This theory is broadly referred to as the Korean minjok (민족; 民族);[21]: 188 An early form of the minjok is found in his article "New History Reader."[22]: 6–7 Sin's minjok works contested the traditional conception of Korea as a geographically defined "peninsular nation" (반도 국; pandoguk), which was born out of politics associated with the Mandate of Heaven in classical Chinese political philosophy.[6]: 29 This Chinese hegemony was interpreted as Sinocentric by Sin, and others, as it placed border control in the hands of the Chinese Court.[3]: 27 [6]: 29–30
Sin's minjok historiographical work traced a nation's history by its racial genealogy and lineage, relying on heritable race and culture.[23]: 16 The minjok was defined by the terms of its history, and history was shaped by the minjok, hence these two concepts were reciprocal and inseparable. For Sin, "if one dismisses the minjok, there is no history"; to ignore or to down-play the minjok was to devitalize history itself.[6]: 32
Within the greater minjok history of a nation there was a host race, the chujok (주족); the identification of the chujok was necessary for tracing the authentic history of a nation, and solidified an ethnocentric national history. For Korea, the chujok was the ancient Korean-Manchurian Kingdom of the Buyeo (부여; 夫餘),[6]: 32 which, by Sin's estimate, began 5,000 years ago with the birth of Dangun, the legendary son of a bear who was transformed into a human by the god Whanin.[23]: 16 By combining mythology and genealogy, a common ancestry of Koreans and Manchurians was traced, effectively making them family.[6]: 33 Sin thereby attempted to erase the geographical border between Korea and Manchuria in favour of ethnic re-unification.[21]: 231
Distinct from the minjok was the state, the gukga (국가; 國家; or kukka). The minjok as a more basal concept than the gukga and did not substantially change between generations, whereas the gukga could change between kingdoms, government, and rules.[6]: 40
By defining the minjok as a rich and powerful ethnic history, Sin constructed an anti-imperialism and anti-colonialism social defence. Largely, the goal was rejection of both Chinese and Japanese governmental oversight and influence.[6]: 42 Contemporaneous Japanese historians also argued that Koreans and Manchurians were the same group, but their efforts were to prove Korea was historically indistinct from other nations and thus mitigate Korea's importance.[6]: 30
Social Darwinism
[edit]Sin is sometimes called a social Darwinist, a popular concept in the early 20th century. Within Sin's work, the Manchurian-Korean Buyeo minjok is interpreted as the standard of measure for historical progress in Korea.[6]: 34 Sin described a racial history of conflict between the various races of East Asia, as well as a political history. Towards this progress, Sin's minjok project was laid out in terms of racial victories: specifically for the Buyeo, victory would be complete reunification of the race and then-on defending against cultural assimilation and imperialism.[6]: 35
This "Darwinian-Spencerian" framework, which prized ethnic nationalism and purity, allowed Sin to write a race-centred history of Korea that attempted to shut down the Japanese colonial justifications by conjoining ethnic history and progress, necessarily making harmful the adulteration of Korean society with Japanese culture, not a progressive one.[21]: 34–5 This is somewhat analogous to Nordicism, or progressivist ethnography, but from a Korean-centric perspective.
Sin did not describe Korea as the "victor" of these racial battles. Sin described a slow fall of the minjok, primarily attributing a high point to King Muyeol of Silla, and then descent through the fall of Balhae and slow fracturing of Korean social unity through politics and war. Sin praised the Koryeo and Choseon dynasties, but insisted that the successes that they brought were only partial, lamenting that if scholars "are searching for a full unification, it cannot be found after Tangun."[6]: 35–6
Juche
[edit]Sin Ch'aeho is often credited as the primary source in the Juche (주체; 主體; meaning Self-reliance or Autonomy; sometimes spelt Chuch'e) political ideology. Juche aspires towards a country's complete autonomy, both in a national sense and in an historical sense.[23]: 5 However, it is not clear whether the North Korean Juche is modelled upon or is merely similar to Sin's Juche.[21]: 270–2 Scholars such as Sheila Miyoshi Jager have written that strong references about the history of North Korean ideology are uncommon, but similarities in language, symbolism, and the concepts make Sin a good candidate as an influence on Kim Il Sung and his own Juche state ideology.[23]: 5 Sin's Juche concept is also specifically Korean; however it bears a likeness to Japanese Kokutai (국체; Kukche).[24]: 135
Anarchism
[edit]Sin Ch'aeho's anarchist philosophy is largely ignored by contemporary Korean scholars.[21]: 272 One of his later works, The Dream Sky, is considered one of these anarchist-themed works, and explores themes of "clear understanding," an individual's "own way", and praises "human struggle" as a righteous path. The book also challenged literary standards by ending on an ellipsis and breaking historical continuity by borrowing characters from Korean history.[11]: 324–5
Legacy
[edit]In South Korea, after the emancipation from Japan, Sin was not considered an important author. The term minjok was decried as politically unacceptable by Sin's old acquaintance from the Provisional Government, and now the first president of South Korea, Syngman Rhee. The new South Korean government favoured the term kukka (국가), which implied loyalty to the Republic of Korea, over Sin's minjok (민족). In the 1960s, Rhee's political regime ended and anti-imperialism sentiments redoubled, followed by scholars pursuing a new autonomous history of Korea, and revived the term minjok. By 1980, Sin Ch'aeho had become a powerful figure in Korean historiography, but concepts like minjok, among others, are interpreted in ways that favour the South Korean Government over the North's.[6]: 40–1
The Park military regime in South Korea pushed for capitalist economic development, noting that dismantling the North Korean communist state would do the minjok saengjon good. Following nationalist trends, some South Korean Minjung movements made appeals to national self-reliance (minjok juchesung).[25]: 442–3
North Korea also sponsored re-reading Sin, among other Korean authors. In the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Kim Il Sung is said to be the leader of the minjok, and follows similar genealogical tracings of Koreans into ancient Korean-Manchuria.[6]: 39–40 [21]: 271
Sin Ch'aeho is held in high esteem by North Korea[5]: 112–3 and made a lasting impact on the Korean perception of Japan and imperialism generally.[3]: 27 Two of his works, Doksa Sillon ("A New Reading of History"), written in 1908, and Joseon Sanggosa ("The Early History of Joseon"), published in 1931, are particularly important in the nationalist historiography of modern Korea.[7]: 446 [8]: 3
A consequence of Sin's nationalistic thought might be the discouragement of the Korean diaspora—the closer a Korean was to Korean soil the closer they were to their cultural "space." For Sin, space, culture, and patriotism became inseparable.[21]: 239 A worry of some Koreans is their ethno-cultural continuation, and the loss of "Korean-ness" as Koreans either travel abroad or adopt foreign customs.[26]
Criticism
[edit]Standards of education
[edit]Sin Ch'aeho's high standards of education and early enrollment of children in school (at age 4) were criticized as excessive. He responded that some four-year-olds already knew the Thousand Character Classic and that some had already begun the Children's First Learning Programme (Tongmong sŏnsŭp). He also argued that historical standards of education were steeper than the contemporary standards.[7]: 453 All the while, Sin believed all Korean citizens should learn both Hangul and Hanja to aid in preserving Korean identity, rather than subject themselves to the Chinese language system, and to study Korean patriotic literature.[7]: 458–9
Concerns with Minjok thought
[edit]As part of the minjok historiography, Sin rebuked some scholars for focusing too much on geography and borders rather than minjok ethnic boundaries; he called these scholars "territorial historians". However, his own works consistently employed territorial terms, boundaries, borders that only differ by how Sin justified them by a very ancient Korea, while the "territorial historians'" terms are usually traced to younger Chinese courts. This is aggravated by the fact that Sin had few, if any, compelling references for his historical claims, making his boundaries largely arbitrary or folk-history based.[6]: 31
Dream Sky borrowed from Dante's Divine Comedy
[edit]Sin Ch'aeho's Dream Sky at times resembles Dante's Divine Comedy. If Sin had knowingly presented a Korean-ized Divine Comedy as an authentic work of Korean fiction, it would be an adulteration of the minjok historiography project by Sin's own standards of ethno-cultural autonomy. Whether or not Sin even read Dante's Divine Comedy is purely speculative.[11]: 313
Bibliography
[edit]Sin Ch'aeho wrote at least 12 novels and 28 poems (17 Chinese, 3 Sijo style); he also wrote essays on literary criticism, articles published in newspapers and journals, historical books, and a translation of Three Great Founders of Italy from Chinese into Korean.
| Title | Romanization | Publisher | Date |
|---|---|---|---|
| Liang Qichao (梁啓超), Story of Three Heroes in Building Italy, or Three Great Founders of Italy (意大利建國三傑傳) (trans. Chinese to Korean) | Yìdàlì jiànguó sān jié chuán (Pinyin) | Kwanghak Sŏp'o | 1907 |
| Relationship Between History and Patriotism | Taehan Association Monthly Magazine | 1908 | |
| Two Principles of History | Taehan Maeil Sinbo | 1908 | |
| The Hero Yi Sun-sin | Taehan Maeil Sinbo | 1908 | |
| New History Reader[a 1] | Doksa Sinron, or Doksa Sillon | Taehan Maeil Sinbo | |
| Four Thousand Year History of the Great East | Taedong Sach'ŏnnyŏn Sa | 1908 | |
| General Ŭlchi Mundŏk | Kwanghak Sŏp'o | 1908 | |
| The Tale of the Chivalrous Ch'oe Tot'ong of the Eastern State, or The Biography of Choe Do-tong, Giant in the Eastern Country | Tongguk Kŏgŏl Ch'oe Tot'ong Chŏn | 1909 | |
| The Oriental Italy | Taehan Maeil Sinbo | 1909 | |
| Questions Regarding the History of Korea | Non Ryŏsa Mup'il | Taehan Maeil Sinbo | 1909 |
| Historical Anecdotes | Kuksa-ŭi Ilsa | Taehan Maeil Sinbo | 1909 |
| A Study of the Ancient Sŏnkyo Religion of the Eastern State | Tongguk Kodae Sŏnkyo Ko | Taehan Maeil Sinbo | 1910 |
| A Brief History of Korean Autonomy | 1910 | ||
| The Introduction to Ancient History of Tan'gun | Tangi Kosa Chungka Sŏ | 1912 | |
| Ancient History of Korea | Chosŏn Sanggo Sa | Unpublished (draft) | 1915 |
| Dream Heaven, Heaven seen in a Dream, or The Dream Sky | Kkum hanŭl | Unpublished[a 2] | 1915 |
| History of Korea | Chosŏn Sa | 1918 | |
| A Compendium of Korean History | Chosŏn Sa T'ongron | Unpublished | 1919–1922 (est) |
| Culture | Munhwa P'yŏn | Unpublished | 1919–1922 (est) |
| Ideological Changes | Sasang Pyŏnch'ŏn P'yŏn | Unpublished | 1919–1922 (est) |
| A Study of Geography | Kwangyŏk Ko | Unpublished | 1919–1922 (est) |
| Declaration of Korean Revolution | Chosŏn Hyŏkmyŏng Sŏnŏn | Unpublished | 1923 |
| Changes in Korea's Ancient Literature and Poetry | 1924 | ||
| On the Method of Interpreting Nouns Described by the Idu System | 1924 | ||
| Idu-mun Myŏngsa Haesŏk-pŏp | Idu-mun Myŏngsa Haesŏk-pŏp | The Dong-A Ilbo | 1925 |
| New Year's Free Notes by a Wanderer | 1925 | ||
| Comparative Study of East and West in the “Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms | Samkuk Saki Chung Tongsŏ Yangja Sanghwan Kojŭng | The Dong-A Ilbo | 1925 |
| An Amendment to the Story of Tong'i in Samkikchi | Samkukchi Tong'ijŏ Kyojŏng | Unpublished | 1925 |
| A Study of P'yŏngyang's River Water, or An Inquiry into the River Paesu in Pyeongyang | Pyŏngyang P'aesu Ko | The Dong-A Ilbo | 1925 |
| A Study of the Three Hans in Sequence, or An Inquiry into the Former and Latter Three Han States | Chŏnhu Samhan Ko | The Dong-A Ilbo | 1924–1925 (est) |
| The Biggest Incident in One Thousand Years in Korean History | Chosŏn Yŏksasang Ilch'ŏnnyŏnnae Cheil Taesakŏn | The Dong-A Ilbo | 1925 |
| King Chatae Who Held Hist Father Under Detention | Purŭl Suhan Ch'adaewang | Shidae Ilbo | 1926 |
| On the Chronology of Koguryŏ and Silla | Kokuryŏ-wa Silla Kŏnguk Yŏndae-e Taehayŏ | Shidae Ilbo | 1926 |
| Taekaya Ch'ŏn'guk Ko | Taekaya Ch'ŏn'guk Ko | Unpublished | 1927 |
| Chŏng In-hong kong Yakchŏn | Chŏng In-hong kong Yakchŏn | Unpublished | 1927 |
| Legends of Ancient Korea | Chŏson-ŭi Kodae Sinhwa | Unpublished | 1927 |
| The Great Battle of Two Dragons, or The War of the Dragons | Yong kwa yong ŭi taegyŏkchŏn | 1928 | |
| Exploratory Studies in Korean History | Joseonsa yongu cho | 1930 | |
| The History of Korea[a 3] | The Chosun Ilbo | 1931–1932 (SP) | |
| Cultural History of Ancient Korea | The Chosun Ilbo | 1931 | |
| To Whom the Great Wall of China Belongs | The Chosun Ilbo | 1932 | |
| A Study of the History of Tan'gun | |||
| Best Years of the Korean People | The Chosun Ilbo | 1932 | |
| The Year of the Death of General Yŏn'gae Somun | |||
| Some Questions Regarding the History of Korea | Chosŏn-sa Chŏngni-e Taehun Saŭi | 1920–1929 (est) | |
| The Vicissitudes of the Dae Gaya | Unpublished | ||
| A Brief Biography of Jeong In-hong | Unpublished | ||
| An appeal to Chosun cultural history or Myth of the Tangun | Chosŏn sango munhwasa | ||
| Collected works of Sin Ch'aeho, or The Complete Works of Sin "Tanje" Ch'ae-ho, in 3 Volumes | Tanje Sin Ch'ae-ho chŏnjip, 3 gwon | Ulsa Munhwasa | 1978 (PPH) |
Bibliographical notes
[edit]- ^ Reprinted in “Youth” magazine in 1910 under the title Kuksa Saron (An Unofficial View of Korean History).
- ^ Published posthumously by The Club of Commemoration for Tanjae Sin Ch’ae-ho (ed.) in Series of Sin Ch'ae-ho (Seoul: Hyungseol, 1995).
- ^ Reprinted in 1948 under the title “The Ancient History of Korea”.
See also
[edit]
- Anarchism
- Independence Club
- Juche
- Korea under Japanese rule
- Korean diaspora
- Korean ethnic nationalism
- Korean nationalism
- Korean independence movement
- National-anarchism
References
[edit]- ^ a b c Bae, Ji-sook (March 2009). "Independence Fighter to Get Family Register". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 25 June 2014. Retrieved 25 June 2014.
- ^ Ch'oe, Yŏng-ho (1980). "An outline history of Korean historiography". Korean Studies. 4: 1–27. doi:10.1353/ks.1980.0003. S2CID 162859304.
- ^ a b c Park, So-yang (Jan 2012). "Speaking with the Colonial Ghosts and Pungsu Rumour in Contemporary South Korea (1990-2006): The Pungsu (Feng Shui) Invasion Story Surrounding the Demolition of the Former Japanese Colonial-General Building and Iron Spikes". Journal for Cultural Research. 16 (1): 21–42. doi:10.1080/14797585.2011.633834. S2CID 143580293.
- ^ a b Robinson, Michael (1986). "Nationalism and the Korean Tradition, 1896-1920: Iconoclasm, Reform, and National Identity". Korean Studies. 10: 35–53. doi:10.1353/ks.1986.0001. S2CID 153349101.
- ^ a b David-West, Alzo (2011). "Between Confucianism and Marxism-Leninism: Juche and the Case of Chŏng Tasan". Korean Studies. 35: 93–121. doi:10.1353/ks.2011.0007. S2CID 144136781.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Schmid, Andre (Feb 1997). "Rediscovering Manchuria: Sin Ch'aeho and the Politics of Territorial History in Korea". The Journal of Asian Studies. 56 (1): 26–46. doi:10.2307/2646342. JSTOR 2646342.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Shin, Yong-ha (2004). "The philosophical world of Sin Chae-ho". In Lee, Seung-Hwan; Korean National Commission for UNESCO (eds.). Korean Philosophy: Its Tradition and Modern Transformation. Seoul, South Korea: Elizabeth, NJ – Hollym. pp. 441–461. ISBN 1565911784.
- ^ a b c Armstrong, Charles (1995). "Centering the Periphery: Manchurian Exile(s) and the North Korean State" (PDF). Korean Studies. 19: 1–16. doi:10.1353/ks.1995.0017. S2CID 154659765.
- ^ a b Robinson, Michael (1984). "National Identity and the Thought of Sin Ch'aeho: Sadaejuŭi and Chuch'e in History and Politics". Journal of Korean Studies. 5: 121–142. doi:10.1353/jks.1984.0003. S2CID 144453287.
- ^ Kuiwon. "Shin Chaeho – On the road to mount Baekdu". Koreabridge.
- ^ a b c Park, Sang-jin (Dec 2012). "The literary value of Sin Ch'ae-ho's Dream Sky: A marginal alteration of Dante's Comedy". Acta Koreana. 15 (2): 311–340. doi:10.18399/acta.2012.15.2.003.
- ^ Suh, Dae-sook (1967). The Korean Communist Movement 1918–1948. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
- ^ Tikhonov, Vladimir (2012). "The Race and Racism Discourses in Modern Korea 1890s–1910s". Korean Studies. 36: 31–57. doi:10.1353/ks.2012.0008. S2CID 154181698.
- ^ a b Ban, Byung Yool (2016). "Danjae Sin Chae-ho's Nationalist Actvities [sic] in the Russian Maritime Province". 한국학논총 (in Korean). 46. ISSN 1225-9977.
- ^ "권업회[勸業會]". 우리역사넷. Retrieved 2024-02-13.
- ^ 정, 진석 (2020-08-02). "[제국의 황혼 '100년전 우리는'] [144] 연해주의 抗日신문과 언론인들". The Chosun Ilbo (in Korean). Retrieved 2024-02-13.
- ^ 정, 진석 (2013). 한국 신문 역사 [History of Korean Newspapers] (in Korean). 커뮤니케이션북스. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-89-6680-184-8.
- ^ Tikhonov, Vladimir (2007). "Masculinizing the nation: Gender ideologies in traditional Korea and in the 1890s–1900s Korean elightenment discourse". The Journal of Asian Studies. 66 (4): 1029–1065. doi:10.1017/s0021911807001283.
- ^ a b "Historical Figures 중구청 사이트". Daejeon Jung-gu. Archived from the original on 20 April 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
- ^ Korea Times, Dec. 3, 1994. Cited by Bruce Cumings (2005), Korea's Place in the Sun (updated edition), New York and London: W. W. Norton.
- ^ a b c d e f g Schmid, Andre (2002). Korea Between Empires, 1895–1919. New York: Columbia University Press.
- ^ Lee, Ki-Baĭk (September 1979). "Nationalism in Tanjae's Historical Study". Korea Journal. 19 (9): 4–10.
- ^ a b c d Jager, Sheila Miyoshi (Feb 1996). "Women, resistance, and the divided nation: The romantic rhetoric of Korean reunification". The Journal of Asian Studies. 55 (1): 3–21. doi:10.2307/2943634. JSTOR 2943634.
- ^ Robinson, Michael (1984). "National identity and thought of Sin Ch'aeho: Sadaejuŭi and Chuch'e in history and politics". Journal of Korean Studies. 5: 121–142. doi:10.1353/jks.1984.0003. S2CID 144453287.
- ^ Sung, Min-kyu (2009). "The 'truth politics' of anti-North Koreanism: the post-ideological cultural representation of North Korea and the cultural criticisms of Korean nationalism". Inter-Asia Cultural Studies. 10 (3): 439–459. doi:10.1080/14649370902949457. S2CID 143693682.
- ^ Burgess, Chris (2007). "'Loss' and 'Recovery' of Voice amongst Korean International Marriage Migrants: Discourses of Korean-ness in Contemporary Japan". Electronic Journal of Contemporary Japanese Studies. 7. Archived from the original on April 25, 2009. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
External links
[edit]
- www.danjae.com (in Korean)
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