Return migration

Return migration or remigration^[1] is the migration of a people back to their country of citizenship, in line with the right of return. Research topics include the return migration process, motivations for returning, the experiences returnees encounter, and the impacts of return migration on both the host and the home countries.^[2]

The exact numbers are debated, but Mark Wyman concludes: "The totals are so enormous: at least one-third of the 52 million Europeans who left Europe between 1824 and 1924 returned permanently to their homelands."^[3]

Return migration is the repatriation of a migrant. It may be voluntary or involuntary;^[4] in the latter case it may be called deportation. It should also be distinguished from circular migration, in which migrants repeatedly travel between origin and destination countries, for example to plant and harvest crops each season.

Return migration to the original home by migrants living in their new home can be motivated by numerous factors, singly or in combination.^[5] Some common motivations for return migration are:^[6][7][8]

• Economic factors: Individuals may choose to return to their home country if they believe there are better job prospects, or the opportunity to purchase a farm with money earned abroad. They may go back because a deep economic downturn in the host economy undermines their opportunities. By the 1890s, German and Scandinavian immigrants had established prosperous farms and small businesses in the U.S. and were reluctant to return.^[9]

• Social and cultural factors: People may decide to return to their home country to be closer to family members, to reconnect with their cultural roots, or to participate in social and community activities. Their experience abroad gives them a new status: e.g. they may be sought out to give advice to would-be emigrants. Many Italian immigrants felt alienated in the U.S., and typically stayed for only a few years.^[10]

• Political factors can operate in the host or the home country: changes in political regimes, policy reforms, or improvements in governance may encourage individuals who had previously migrated to return to their home country. Their ethnicity might be a cause of intolerable discrimination in the host country. A sudden turn for the worse in the host country's political scene might cause them to flee home. They may also bring new skills learned while abroad. Jewish and Irish immigrants rarely returned to homelands (Russia and Ireland) where they were not well treated.^[11]

• Government factors: the host government might be hostile to immigrants, setting up barriers or threats or talking in that direction. Or the original home government might offer incentives to return, as Italy did in 1901-1927.^[12]

• Personal reasons: An elderly migrant might wish to retire, and would thus no longer earn a high income in the host country. They may wish to return due to homesickness, a desire for familiarity, or a sense of attachment to their home country. In Kenya there is a wish to be buried alongside ancestors.^[13]

Return migration can have major impacts on both the migrants themselves and the countries involved. For the migrants, it can lead to cultural readjustment, the reestablishment of social networks, and potential economic opportunities. For the countries of origin, return migration can bring back human capital, skills, and resources that contribute to development and economic growth. However, return migration is not always a smooth process. Migrants may face challenges in reintegrating into their home societies, including finding suitable employment, adapting to changes in the local environment, or dealing with the stigma associated with migration. The decision to return is often influenced by a complex interplay of individual circumstances and broader economic, social, and political factors.^[14]

Voluntary return is the return of eligible persons, such as refugees, to their country of origin or citizenship on the basis of freely expressed willingness to such return. Voluntary return, unlike expulsion and deportation, which are actions of sovereign states, is defined as a personal right under specific conditions described in various international instruments, such as the OAU Convention, along with customary international law.

Certain countries offer financial support to refugees and immigrants to help them start a new life in their country of origin. Examples in the 21st century are:

• The Danish government, which in 2009 began offering £12,000 each to immigrants to return,^[15]
• Switzerland offering about 6,500 Francs, targeted for business startups upon returning home,^[16]
• Ireland^[17]
• In 2016, Germany allocated €150 million over three years for migrants willing to return,^[18]
• The Swedish government began offering £3,500 each.^[19]

544 Nigerians returned home from Switzerland in 2013.^[20]

Two countries may have a re-admission agreement, which establishes procedures, on a reciprocal basis, for one state to return "irregular" non-nationals to their country of origin or to a country through which they have transited.^[21] Illegal immigrants are frequently repatriated as a matter of government policy. Repatriation measures of voluntary return, with financial assistance, as well as measures of deportation are used in many countries.

Involuntary or forced repatriation is the return of refugees, prisoners of war, or civil detainees to their country of origin under circumstances that leave no other viable alternatives.^[22] According to modern international law, prisoners of war, civil detainees, or refugees refusing repatriation, particularly if motivated by fears of political persecution in their own country, should be protected from refoulement and given, if possible, temporary or permanent asylum.^[21]

While repatriation necessarily brings an individual to his or her territory of origin or citizenship, a return potentially includes bringing the person back to the point of departure. This could be to a third country, including a country of transit, which is a country the person has traveled through to get to the country of destination. A return could also be within the territorial boundaries of a country, as in the case of returning internally displaced persons and demobilized combatants. The distinction between repatriation and return, voluntary or involuntary, is not always clear.^[23]

Ethnicity	Rate
Jewish	4%
Irish	9%
German	14%
Scandinavian	15%
Armenian	18%
Dutch	19%
British/British Canadian	19%
French Canadian	24%
Polish	33%
Italian	46%
Hungarian	47%
Greek	54%
Romanian	66%

Source: Archdeacon. p 139.^[24]

• Push and pull factors in migration

• Abramitzky, Ran, Leah Boustan, and Katherine Eriksson. "To the new world and back again: Return migrants in the age of mass migration." ILR Review 72.2 (2019): 300-322. online
• Bilecen, Tuncay. "To Stay or to Return? A Review on Return Migration Literature" Migration Letters (2022) 19#4 pp. 367–385. https://doi.org/10.33182/ml.v19i4.2092 online

• Cassarino, Jean-Pierre. "Return migration and development: The significance of migration cycles." Routledge handbook of immigration and refugee studies (Routledge, 2015). 216-222.
• Cassarino, Jean-Pierre. "Theorising return migration: The conceptual approach to return migrants revisited." International Journal on Multicultural Societies 6.2 (2004): 253-279. online
• Constant, Amelie F. "Time-space dynamics of return and circular migration." Handbook of labor, human resources and population economics (2020): 1-40.
• Dorigo, Guido. and Waldo Tobler, "Push-pull migration laws." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 73.1 (1983): 1-17 online

• Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, Elena, et al., eds. The Oxford handbook of refugee and forced migration studies (Oxford UP, 2014).
• Gmelch, George. "Return migration." Annual review of anthropology 9.1 (1980): 135-159.
• Guzzetta, Charles. "Return migration: An overview." Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Services 2.1-2 (2004): 109-117.
• Hanlon, Bernadette and Vicino, Thomas J. Global Migration: The Basics (Routledge, 2014).
• Harper, Marjorie, ed. Emigrant Homecomings (Manchester UP, 2017). 12 essays by experts.
• King, Russell. “Return Migration: A Neglected Aspect of Population Geography.” Area 10#3 (1978), pp. 175–82. online
• Lee, Everett S. (1966). "A Theory of Migration". Demography. 3 (1): 47–57. doi:10.2307/2060063. JSTOR 2060063. S2CID 46976641.
• Mohamed, Mohamed-Abdullahi, and Asmat-Nizam Abdul-Talib "Push–pull factors influencing international return migration intentions: a systematic literature review" Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy (2020) 14#2 pp. 231-246 online
• Peterson, Glen. "Return migration." in The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration (2013).
• Tsuda, Takeyuki, ed. Diasporic homecomings: Ethnic return migration in comparative perspective (Stanford University Press, 2009).

• International Migration
• International Migration Review
• Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies
• Migration Letters

• Return migration between 1850 and 1950 by Dr. Sarah Oberbichler Newseye projet (https://newseye.eu Archived 2023-06-13 at the Wayback Machine)
• 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article

• International Organization for Migration's World Migration Report 2020
• OECD International Migration Outlook 2007 (subscription service)