Newlands Resolution

Newlands Resolution
Long title	Joint Resolution to Provide for Annexing the Hawaiian Islands to the United States (1898)
Enacted by	the 55th United States Congress
Effective	July 7, 1898
Citations
Statutes at Large	30 Stat. 750
Legislative history
	Introduced in the House as H.J.Res. 259 by Francis G. Newlands (S-NV); Passed the House on June 15, 1898 (209-91); Passed the Senate on July 6, 1898 (42-21); Signed into law by President William McKinley on July 7, 1898;

On August 23, 1898, the flag of Hawaii over Iolani Palace was lowered and the United States flag raised to signify annexation.

The Newlands Resolution, 30 Stat. 750, was a joint resolution passed on July 7, 1898, by the United States Congress to annex the independent Republic of Hawaii. In 1900, Congress created the Territory of Hawaii.

The resolution was drafted by Representative Francis G. Newlands of Nevada, a member of the Silver Party. Annexation was a highly controversial political issue, along with the similar issue of the acquisition of the Philippines in 1898.

Passage

In 1897, US President William McKinley signed a treaty of annexation for the Republic of Hawaii which lacked two-thirds support in the Senate, and thus never went into effect. In April 1898, the US went to war with Spain. The Republic of Hawaii decided not to support the war effort and declared its neutrality. However, according to Ralph S. Kuykendall, "The Hawaiian government threw aside its neutrality and did all it could to aid the Americans....Honolulu became a mid-ocean stopover for the United States troops that were sent across the Pacific to follow up Dewey's victory. The American soldiers were enthusiastically welcomed and given a taste of Hawaiian hospitality."^[1] This demonstrated Hawaii's value as a naval base in wartime, and the American colony on Hawaii won widespread American approval for its help.^[2] With the opposition weakened by this strategic importance, Hawaii was annexed through the Newlands Resolution, a joint resolution of Congress with executive assent, which required only a majority vote in both houses. Most of the bill's support came from Republicans. It passed the house by a vote of 209 to 91, with 182 of the votes in favor from Republicans. In the event, it passed the Senate by 42–21, with exactly two-thirds in favor. It was approved on July 6, 1898, and signed on July 7 by President McKinley. Queen Liliʻuokalani sent a letter of protest to the US House of Representatives in attempt to return control of her homeland to native Hawaiians, stating her throne had been taken illegally.^[3] On August 12, 1898, a ceremony was held on the steps of ʻIolani Palace to signify the official transfer of Hawaiian state sovereignty to the US. None of the former Hawaiian leadership attended.^[4]

This account illustrates the popular response to the ceremony: "An event of this magnitude would ordinarily call for gala celebrations that night. However, there were no celebrations as there was too much sadness, too much bitterness and resentment prevalent in the atmosphere and the authorities were afraid of riots by the unhappy frustrated Hawaiians."^[5]

The resolution established a five-member commission to study the laws that were needed in Hawaii. The commission included Territorial Governor Sanford B. Dole (R-Hawaii Territory), Senators Shelby M. Cullom (R-IL) and John T. Morgan (D-AL), Representative Robert R. Hitt (R-IL) and former Hawaii Chief Justice and later Territorial Governor Walter F. Frear (R-Hawaii Territory). The commission's final report was submitted to Congress, resulting in a debate that lasted over a year. Congress raised objections that establishing an elected territorial government in Hawaii would lead to the admission of a state with a non-white majority. Annexation allowed duty-free trade between the islands and the mainland, although this had mostly already been accomplished through a reciprocity trade agreement King David Kalakaua had made with the US in 1875, which had also given the US Navy a long term lease of Pearl Harbor as a naval base.

The creation of the Territory of Hawaii was the final step in a long history of dwindling Hawaiian sovereignty, and divided the local population. The annexation was opposed among the Polynesian population, and occurred without a referendum of any kind.^[6] Between September 11 and October 2, 1897, the Hui Aloha 'Aina and Hui Kulai'aina groups organised a mass petition drive that obtained 21,269 signatures on the "Petition Against Annexation"—more than half of the 39,000 native Hawaiians.^[3] The Hawaiian sovereignty movement still disputes the legality of the acquisition of Hawaii under the United States Constitution.^[7]^[8]^[9] However, the US Supreme Court gave tacit recognition to the legitimacy of Hawaii's annexation in DeLima v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 1, 196 (1901).^[10] The legality of the Newlands Resolution has also been recognized by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in Arakaki v. Lingle, 477 F.3d 1048 (2007)(recognizing that "the Newlands Resolution, provided that the Republic of Hawaii ceded all public lands to the United States").^[11]

Cost

The US assumed $4 million in Hawaiian debt as part of the annexation. David R. Barker of the University of Iowa stated in 2009 that unlike the Alaska Purchase, Hawaii has been profitable for the country, with net tax revenue almost always exceeding non-defense spending. He estimated an internal rate of return for the annexation of more than 15%.^[12]

Popular controversy

Multiple viewpoints in the US and in Hawaii were raised for and against annexation from 1893 to 1898. Historian Henry Graff wrote that at first, "Public opinion at home seemed to indicate acquiescence.... Unmistakably, the sentiment at home was maturing with immense force for the United States to join the great powers of the world in a quest for overseas colonies."^[13]

President Grover Cleveland, on taking office in March 1893, rescinded the annexation proposal. His biographer Alyn Brodsky argued that it was a deeply personal conviction on Cleveland's part against immoral action against the little kingdom:

Just as he stood up for the Samoan Islands against Germany because he opposed the conquest of a lesser state by a greater one, so did he stand up for the Hawaiian Islands against his own nation. He could have let the annexation of Hawaii move inexorably to its inevitable culmination. But he opted for confrontation, which he hated, as it was to him the only way a weak and defenseless people might retain their independence. It was not the idea of annexation that Grover Cleveland opposed, but the idea of annexation as a pretext for illicit territorial acquisition.^[14]

Cleveland had to mobilize support from Southern Democrats to fight the treaty. He sent former Georgia Representative James H. Blount as a special representative to Hawaii to investigate and to provide a solution. Blount was well known for his opposition to imperialism. Blount was also a leading advocate for white supremacy, which effectively ended the right to vote for southern Blacks in the 1890s. Some observers had speculated that he would support annexation on the grounds of the inability of Asiatics to govern themselves. Instead, Blount opposed imperialism, called for the US military to restore Queen Liliuokalani, and argued that the Hawaii natives should be allowed to continue their "Asiatic ways."^[15]

Blount seemingly was unaware of the written policy set for Hawaii in Cleveland's first term by his Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard for Hawaii. Bayard sent written instructions to the American minister George W. Merrill that in the event of another revolution in Hawaii, it was a priority to protect American commerce, lives, and property. Bayard specified that "the assistance of the officers of our Government vessels, if found necessary, will therefore be promptly afforded to promote the reign of law and respect for orderly government in Hawaii." In July 1889, during a small-scale rebellion, Merrill landed Marines to protect Americans, an action that the State Department explicitly approved. Stevens had read those 1887 instructions and followed them in 1893.^[16]^[17]

A vigorous nationwide anti-expansionist movement, organized as the American Anti-Imperialist League, emerged. Prominent anti-imperialists included Carl Schurz, Democratic leader William Jennings Bryan, industrialist Andrew Carnegie, author Mark Twain, sociologist William Graham Sumner, and many prominent intellectuals and politicians who came of age during the Civil War.^[18] The anti-imperialists opposed territorial expansion, believing that imperialism violated the fundamental principle that just, republican government derives from "consent of the governed." The League argued that such activity would necessitate the abandonment of American ideals of self-government and non-intervention that were expressed in the Declaration of Independence, George Washington's Farewell Address, and Lincoln's Gettysburg Address.^[19]

However, they could not stop the even more energetic forces of imperialism, which were led by Secretary of State John Hay, naval strategist Alfred T. Mahan, Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Secretary of War Elihu Root, and the young politician Theodore Roosevelt. Those expansionists had vigorous support from newspaper publishers William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, who whipped up popular excitement. There was deep concern that Japan would force Hawaii into its colonial empire, which was believed to pose a serious threat to the West Coast.^[20] Mahan and Roosevelt designed a global strategy calling for a competitive modern navy, Pacific bases, an isthmian canal through Nicaragua or Panama, and (above all) an assertive role for the United States as the largest industrial power.^[21] McKinley's position was that Hawaii could never survive on its own but would quickly be gobbled up by Japan, as about a quarter of the islands' population was already ethnically Japanese, and that this would allow Japan to dominate the Pacific and undermine American hopes for large-scale trade with Asia.^[22]

References

^ Ralph S. Kuykendall, Hawaii: A History, from Polynesian Kingdom to American State (1961) pp 188–189.
^ Thomas A. Bailey, "The United States and Hawaii during the Spanish–American War" American Historical Review 36#3 (1931), pp. 552–560 online
^ ^a ^b "The 1897 Petition Against the Annexation of Hawaii". 15 August 2016.
^ Coffman, Tom (2016). Nation Within: The History of the American Occupation of Hawai'i. Duke University Press. p. 315. ISBN 978-0822373988. Retrieved 2023-05-25.
^ "Reminiscences of a Kamaʻāina," February 24, 1964. Submitted by Johanna N. Wilcox, March 31, 1964. Bishop Museum Archives. Audio Collection Supplemental Folder. H-138.
^ From a Native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawaiʻi Haunani-Kay Trask p. 29 ^{[ISBN missing]}
^ Twigg-Smith, Thurston (1998). Hawaiian Sovereignty: Do the Facts Matter?. Honolulu: Goodale Publishing. ISBN 978-0966294507. OCLC 39090004.
^ Trask, Haunani-Kay (1999). From a Native Daughter : Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawaiʻi. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 13–16. ISBN 978-0824820596 – via eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost).
^ United States Public Law 103-150. Hawaii-nation.org. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
^ Van Dyke, Jon. Who Owns the Crown Lands? (PDF). pp. 212 n. 86.
^ "Arakaki v. Lingle, 477 F.3d 1048 (9th Cir. 2007)". Justia.com. February 9, 2007. Retrieved February 23, 2026.
^ "Researcher's analysis shows buying Alaska no sweet deal for American taxpayers" (Press release). University of Iowa. 2009-11-06. Archived from the original on 2016-04-20. Retrieved 2018-01-20.
^ Henry F. Graff (2002). Grover Cleveland: The American Presidents Series: The 22nd and 24th President, 1885-1889 and 1893-1897. Macmillan. p. 121. ISBN 9780805069235.
^ Alyn Brodsky (2000). Grover Cleveland: A Study in Character. Macmillan. p. 1. ISBN 9780312268831.
^ Tennant S. McWilliams, "James H. Blount, the South, and Hawaiian Annexation." Pacific Historical Review (1988) 57#1: 25-46 online.
^ Charles S. Campbell, The Transformation of American Foreign Relations: 1865–1900 (1976), pp 178-79.
^ United States. Department of State (1895). Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States. p. 1167.
^ Fred H. Harrington, "The Anti-Imperialist Movement in the United States, 1898-1900." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 22.2 (1935): 211-230. online
^ Fred Harvey Harrington, "Literary Aspects of American Anti-Imperialism 1898–1902," New England Quarterly, 10#4 (1937), pp 650-67. online.
^ William Michael Morgan, Pacific Gibraltar: U.S.-Japanese Rivalry Over the Annexation of Hawaii, 1885-1898 (2011).
^ Warren Zimmermann, "Jingoes, Goo-Goos, and the Rise of America's Empire." The Wilson Quarterly (1976) 22#2 (1998): 42-65. Online
^ Thomas J. Osborne, "The Main Reason for Hawaiian Annexation in July, 1898," Oregon Historical Quarterly (1970) 71#2 pp. 161–178 in JSTOR

External links

"1893 Treaty of Annexation (Never ratified)". AlohaQuest. Retrieved June 27, 2020.
"1897 Treaty of Annexation. Negotiated in 1897 (Never ratified by the United States)". AlohaQuest. Retrieved June 27, 2020.
Text of the Newlands Resolution
morganreport.org Online images and transcriptions of the entire 1894 Morgan Report
"Blount Report: Affairs in Hawaii (1893)". University of Hawaiʻi at Manoa Library.
"The Annexation Of Hawaii: A Collection Of Documents". Hawaiian Digital Collection. University of Hawaiʻi at Manoa Library.

[1] Ralph S. Kuykendall, Hawaii: A History, from Polynesian Kingdom to American State (1961) pp 188–189.

[2] Thomas A. Bailey, "The United States and Hawaii during the Spanish–American War" American Historical Review 36#3 (1931), pp. 552–560 online

[archives.gov-3] "The 1897 Petition Against the Annexation of Hawaii". 15 August 2016.

[4] Coffman, Tom (2016). Nation Within: The History of the American Occupation of Hawai'i. Duke University Press. p. 315. ISBN 978-0822373988. Retrieved 2023-05-25.

[5] "Reminiscences of a Kamaʻāina," February 24, 1964. Submitted by Johanna N. Wilcox, March 31, 1964. Bishop Museum Archives. Audio Collection Supplemental Folder. H-138.

[6] From a Native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawaiʻi Haunani-Kay Trask p. 29 ^{[ISBN missing]}

[Hawaii1-7] Twigg-Smith, Thurston (1998). Hawaiian Sovereignty: Do the Facts Matter?. Honolulu: Goodale Publishing. ISBN 978-0966294507. OCLC 39090004.

[8] Trask, Haunani-Kay (1999). From a Native Daughter : Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawaiʻi. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 13–16. ISBN 978-0824820596 – via eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost).

[9] United States Public Law 103-150. Hawaii-nation.org. Retrieved 18 January 2018.

[10] Van Dyke, Jon. Who Owns the Crown Lands? (PDF). pp. 212 n. 86.

[11] "Arakaki v. Lingle, 477 F.3d 1048 (9th Cir. 2007)". Justia.com. February 9, 2007. Retrieved February 23, 2026.

[uiowa20091106-12] "Researcher's analysis shows buying Alaska no sweet deal for American taxpayers" (Press release). University of Iowa. 2009-11-06. Archived from the original on 2016-04-20. Retrieved 2018-01-20.

[13] Henry F. Graff (2002). Grover Cleveland: The American Presidents Series: The 22nd and 24th President, 1885-1889 and 1893-1897. Macmillan. p. 121. ISBN 9780805069235.

[14] Alyn Brodsky (2000). Grover Cleveland: A Study in Character. Macmillan. p. 1. ISBN 9780312268831.

[15] Tennant S. McWilliams, "James H. Blount, the South, and Hawaiian Annexation." Pacific Historical Review (1988) 57#1: 25-46 online.

[16] Charles S. Campbell, The Transformation of American Foreign Relations: 1865–1900 (1976), pp 178-79.

[17] United States. Department of State (1895). Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States. p. 1167.

[18] Fred H. Harrington, "The Anti-Imperialist Movement in the United States, 1898-1900." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 22.2 (1935): 211-230. online

[19] Fred Harvey Harrington, "Literary Aspects of American Anti-Imperialism 1898–1902," New England Quarterly, 10#4 (1937), pp 650-67. online.

[20] William Michael Morgan, Pacific Gibraltar: U.S.-Japanese Rivalry Over the Annexation of Hawaii, 1885-1898 (2011).

[21] Warren Zimmermann, "Jingoes, Goo-Goos, and the Rise of America's Empire." The Wilson Quarterly (1976) 22#2 (1998): 42-65. Online

[22] Thomas J. Osborne, "The Main Reason for Hawaiian Annexation in July, 1898," Oregon Historical Quarterly (1970) 71#2 pp. 161–178 in JSTOR

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v t e William McKinley
25th President of the United States (1897–1901) 39th Governor of Ohio (1892–1896)
Life	23rd Ohio Infantry Regiment Battle of South Mountain Coal miners' strike of 1873 1888 Republican National Convention McKinley Tariff 1896 United States presidential election William McKinley 1896 presidential campaign 1896 Republican National Convention Front porch campaign
Presidency (timeline)	First inauguration of William McKinley Spanish–American War Philippine–American War Treaty of Paris (1898) Newlands Resolution Open Door Policy China Relief Expedition Hay–Pauncefote Treaty Dingley Act Erdman Act Forest Service Organic Administration Act of 1897 Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 Refuse Act Schurman Commission Taft Commission Lacey Act of 1900 Gold Standard Act 1900 United States presidential election 1900 Republican National Convention Second inauguration of William McKinley Pan-American Exposition Assassination of William McKinley
Public image	McKinley at Home, Canton, Ohio McKinley National Memorial McKinley Monument William McKinley Presidential Library and Museum National McKinley Birthplace Memorial McKinley Birthplace Home and Research Center William McKinley Memorial Louisiana Purchase Exposition gold dollar McKinley Birthplace Memorial gold dollar William McKinley Monument Statues Canton, Ohio Chicago Mount McKinley
Family	Ida Saxton McKinley (wife) William McKinley Sr. (father)
← Grover Cleveland Theodore Roosevelt → Category

Newlands Resolution

Passage

Cost

Popular controversy

See also

References

Further reading

External links

v t e Territorial expansion of the United States
Thirteen Colonies (1776) Treaty of Paris (1783) Louisiana Purchase (1803) Red River Cession (1818) Adams–Onís Treaty (1819) Texas Annexation (1845) Oregon Treaty (1846) Mexican Cession (1848) Gadsden Purchase (1853) Guano Islands Act (1856) Alaska Purchase (1867) Annexation of Hawaii (1898) Treaty of Paris (1898) Tripartite Convention (1899) Treaty of Cession of Tutuila (1900) Treaty of Cession of Manuʻa (1904) Annexation of Oklahoma (1906) Treaty of the Danish West Indies (1917) Acquisition of the Northern Mariana Islands (1986)
Concept: Manifest destiny